David N. Livingstone, The Empire of Climate: A History of an Idea (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2024) 552 pp. £32.00 Hb. £22.40 ebook. ISBN: 9780691236704
David Noel Livingstone’s The Empire of Climate: A History of an Idea offers to his readers an examination of how the concept of climate has shaped human thought, society, and culture across time. His work navigates the history of climatic determinism, but, as the author himself claims, rather than providing an exhaustive account, the aim is to explore key areas where the impact of climate continues to provoke interest and debate. This is a reading with a broad historical context which also addresses modern anxieties. This review offers a chapter-by-chapter analysis of the book’s essential concepts.
Livingstone sets the stage with the assertion by Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, that the ‘empire of the climate is the first, the most powerful of all empires’ (3). The author frames his work focusing on four key areas: health, mind, wealth, and war. Chapter One, ‘A Matter of Degree’, is about how climate has been seen as a determining force in history, examining both historical and modern interpretations. By blending past and present, it is shown to the reader how climate’s role as an influential force has evolved and persisted across time.
In the first part of the book there is an examination of the historical relationship between climate, medicine, and human well-being through three chapters. In Chapter Two, ‘Heir of Hippocrates’, he revisits Hippocrates’ treatise On Airs, Waters, and Places, which linked climate to health, suggesting environmental conditions influence diseases and moral tendencies. This legacy persists today, continuing to shape health theories even as science advances. Moving on to Chapter Three, ‘Tropical Terrain: Moral and Medical’, the book explores European views of tropical climates during colonization. Europeans saw the tropics as unhealthy, dangerous, and morally corrupt, which, for them, justified colonial control.
These ideas lead to Chapter Four, ‘Climate, Eugenics, and the Biometeorological Body’, in which there is a discussion on how early 20th-century figures like Ellsworth Huntington linked climate to racial fitness. Huntington argued that certain climates fostered stronger, more industrious populations, justifying eugenic policies based on climatic suitability. This culminated in the control of populations through immigration and reproduction policies, reinforcing racial and national ideologies, shaping views on human value based on climate.
The second part dwells on the effects of climate on cognition, emotion, and psychological well-being. Chapter Five, ‘Climate, Cognition, and Human Evolution’, is about how climate has historically driven human evolution, particularly in developing cognition and brain size. Once tied to racial theories, these ideas have persisted into modern discussions about climate’s role in evolution. Chapter Six, ‘Mind, Mood, and Meteorology’, is about the immediate psychological effects of weather on individuals. It examines the link between climate and mental health, including conditions like seasonal affective disorder (SAD), depression, and aggression.
The third part explores how climate has historically been linked to economic prosperity, slavery, and civilization. This section includes three chapters and each one shows how climatic determinism has justified various economic and social systems. Chapter Seven, ‘Weather, Wealth, and Zonal Economics’, traces how thinkers like Montesquieu and Ibn Khaldūn connected climate to economic productivity. These ideas, previously mentioned, persisted into the 20th century, influencing colonial economic policies and immigration strategies.
Chapter Eight, ‘Slavery, Sustenance, and Tropical Supervision’, expands on how slavery was justified through climate, with proponents arguing that tropical climates were too harsh for white labor. This chapter underscores how climatic and racial ideologies worked hand-in-hand to maintain colonial dominance. Chapter Nine, ‘Climate, Capital, Civilization’, approaches climatic theories’ influence in economic thought. It also discusses how weather influenced economic cycles, productivity, and even stock markets, illustrating the continued influence of climatic determinism, for better or worse, on global economics.
In the final part of the book, the complexities between climate change, warfare, and national security are discussed. Chapter Ten, ‘Climate Wars’, talks about the growing literature on how climate change may fuel armed conflict, unrest, and geopolitical tensions. It is shown that the idea of linking climate to war has a long intellectual lineage, stretching back to ancient times when climatic zones were thought to shape human temperament and proclivity for violence.
With this in mind, it is no wonder that climate change has become a central concern for national security institutions, particularly since the turn of the 21st century. Chapter 11, ‘Securitizing Climate Change’, is about how government officials and military leaders increasingly view such changes as significant threats to global stability, fearing it could destabilize vulnerable regions and worsen conflicts. While the author critiques the oversimplification of securitization efforts, he acknowledges the importance of climate in future security strategies. This section illustrates how climate shapes health, economics, and, crucially, conflict.
The final chapter, ‘The Immortal Bird’, reflects on the enduring nature of environmental determinism and its relevance in the Anthropocene. The author traces how the idea that climate shapes society keeps resurfacing, especially during crises like global warming. Despite new developments, there is an emphasis on the continuity of climate’s role in shaping human thought, concluding that environmental determinism continues to influence the understanding of the past, present, and future. For those who are new to the concept of climate determinism, The Empire of Climate serves as a guide to understand the influence that climate has had in shaping the world. The book’s historical context is particularly valuable, because it sheds light on ideas about climatic thought evolution and continued influence. Therefore, Livingstone succeeds in not only educating but also encouraging further exploration into the subject, making it a compelling read.
Thabata Tosta, University of Porto, Portugal; Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
